Brain Death Determination

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Clinical diagnosis of brain death: Prerequisites and criteria (UpToDate – login required.)

Prerequisites
Clinical or neuroimaging evidence of an acute central nervous system (CNS) catastrophe (eg, traumatic brain injury, subarachnoid hemorrhage)
Exclusion of complicating medical conditions that may confound clinical assessment (no severe electrolyte, acid-base, endocrine, or circulatory [ie, shock] disturbance)
No drug intoxication or poisoning, including any sedative drug administered in hospital, which may confound the clinical assessment
Core temperature >36°C (97°F)
Systolic blood pressure >100 mmHg; vasopressors may be required
Examination findings
Coma
Absent brain-originating motor response, including response to pain stimulus above the neck or other brain-originating movements (eg, seizures, decerebrate or decorticate posturing)
Absent pupillary light reflex; pupils are midposition (3.5 to 4 mm)
Absent corneal reflexes
Absent oculocephalic (doll’s eyes) and oculovestibular reflexes (caloric responses)
Absent jaw jerk
Absent gag reflex
Absent cough with tracheal suctioning
Absent sucking or rooting reflexes (in neonates)
Apnea as demonstrated by apnea test
Observation period
At least 6 hours; longer time periods recommended in children and for certain conditions such as after cardiac arrest
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Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitor Associated Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis

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Thanks to LeslieAnn S. Kao, MD (General Surgery PGY-4) for suggesting this topic.

Somagutta MR, et al. Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis and Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors: A Focused Review of Pathophysiology, Risk Factors, and Triggers. Cureus. 2021 Mar 3;13(3):e13665.

The underlying mechanism is mainly enhanced lipolysis and ketone body reabsorption. SGLT2i also stimulates pancreatic alpha cells and inhibits beta cells, causing an imbalance in glucagon/insulin levels, further contributing to lipolysis and ketogenesis. Most patients were diagnosed with blood glucose less than 200 mg/dL, blood pH <7.3, increased anion gap, increased blood, or urine ketones. Perioperative fasting, pancreatic etiology, low carbohydrate or ketogenic diet, obesity, and malignancy are identified precipitants in this review. As normoglycemia can conceal the underlying acidosis, physicians should be cognizant of the EDKA diagnosis and initiate prompt treatment. Patient education on risk factors and triggers is recommended to avoid future events.

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Videos: The Ladd Procedure for Adult Malrotation With Volvulus

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Brady JT, Kendrick DE, Barksdale EM, Reynolds HL. The Ladd Procedure for Adult Malrotation With Volvulus. Dis Colon Rectum. 2018 Mar;61(3):410.

“Intestinal malrotation is a rare condition that develops during fetal development because of incomplete intestinal rotation or a lack of intestinal rotation around the superior mesenteric artery. Presentation in adulthood, in general, is abnormal and presentation with volvulus is rare. We demonstrate an open Ladd procedure with inversion appendectomy and reduction of paraduodenal hernia of an adult with malrotation with volvulus.”

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Article of interest: Association of Model for End-Stage Liver Disease Score With Mortality in Emergency General Surgery Patients

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Havens JM, Columbus AB, Olufajo OA, Askari R, Salim A, Christopher KB. Association of Model for End-Stage Liver Disease Score With Mortality in Emergency General Surgery Patients. JAMA Surg. 2016 Jul 20;151(7):e160789. doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2016.0789.

Results: A total of 13 552 EGS patients received critical care; of these, 707 (5%) (mean [SD] age at hospital admission, 56.6 [14.2] years; 64% male; 79% white) had CLD and data to determine MELD score at ICU admission. The median MELD score was 14 (interquartile range, 10-20). Overall 90-day mortality was 30.1%. The adjusted odds ratio of 90-day mortality for each 10-point increase in MELD score was 1.63 (95% CI, 1.34-1.98). A decrease in MELD score of more than 3 in the 48 hours following ICU admission was associated with a 2.2-fold decrease in 90-day mortality (odds ratio = 0.46; 95% CI, 0.22-0.98).

Conclusions and relevance: In this study, MELD score was associated with 90-day mortality following EGS in patients with CLD. The MELD score can be used as a prognostic factor in this patient population and should be used in preoperative risk prediction models and when counseling EGS patients on the risks and benefits of operative intervention.

Commentary: Zarrinpar A. Mind MELD or Ignore It at Your Peril. JAMA Surg. 2016 Jul 20;151(7):e160839. doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2016.0839.

Management of malignant hyperthermia

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Hopkins PM, Girard T, Dalay S, Jenkins B, Thacker A, Patteril M, McGrady E. Malignant hyperthermia 2020: Guideline from the Association of Anaesthetists. Anaesthesia. 2021 May;76(5):655-664. Free full-text.

Kim KSM, Kriss RS, Tautz TJ. Malignant Hyperthermia: A Clinical Review. Adv Anesth. 2019 Dec;37:35-51. Full-text for Emory users.

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Article of interest: Spotlight on the utility of the Oncotype DX ® breast cancer assay.

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Siow ZR, De Boer RH, Lindeman GJ, Mann GB. Spotlight on the utility of the Oncotype DX® breast cancer assay. Int J Womens Health. 2018 Feb 21;10:89-100.

Summary: Genomic assays such as Oncotype DX have changed the landscape for the treatment of ER-positive early breast cancer. In a USA-based study, there has been a 13% decline in the use of adjuvant chemotherapy in 2006–2008, which has been largely attributed to the introduction of the Oncotype DX in 2004.78 While the Oncotype DX is expensive, the potential cost savings from chemotherapy avoidance and reduced exposure to the side effects of cytotoxic therapy appear to be cost-effective in most jurisdictions. The development and eventual validation of other genomic assays could potentially reduce test costs. While Oncotype DX is currently well validated in the node-negative population, its optimal use remains to be defined for cohorts of patients with intermediate-risk RS, as well as for patients with lymph node-positive disease. Results from the prospective TAILORx and RxPONDER trials will help shed light on these questions.

Sentinel lymph node surgery after neoadjuvant chemotherapy in node-positive breast cancer

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Cavalcante FP, Millen EC, Zerwes FP, Novita GG. Role of Axillary Surgery After Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy. JCO Glob Oncol. 2020 Feb;6:238-241.

“In a US study, associating selective localization and removal of clipped nodes with SLN dissection, known as targeted axillary dissection, reduced false-negative rates to approximately 2% compared with 4% with removal of the clipped lymph node alone. [20] However, patients are required to undergo two procedures: placement of the clip before systemic treatment and marking it to identify the lymph node during surgery. A retrospective analysis showed that in patients with clipped lymph nodes who were referred for preoperative marking, the clip failed to be identified in 20% of those patients, even when computed tomography was used, with the additional risk of the clip not being removed during surgery. [21] Therefore, the use of clips is controversial, because it is sometimes impossible to remove the clip alone. Despite the association between the number of lymph nodes and false-negative rates, there are still no convincing data regarding clinical outcome.”

Caudle AS, Yang WT, Krishnamurthy S, et al. Improved Axillary Evaluation Following Neoadjuvant Therapy for Patients With Node-Positive Breast Cancer Using Selective Evaluation of Clipped Nodes: Implementation of Targeted Axillary Dissection. J Clin Oncol. 2016 Apr 1;34(10):1072-8.

Results: Of 208 patients enrolled in this study, 191 underwent ALND, with residual disease identified in 120 (63%). The clipped node revealed metastases in 115 patients, resulting in an FNR of 4.2% (95% CI, 1.4 to 9.5) for the clipped node. In patients undergoing SLND and ALND (n = 118), the FNR was 10.1% (95% CI, 4.2 to 19.8), which included seven false-negative events in 69 patients with residual disease. Adding evaluation of the clipped node reduced the FNR to 1.4% (95% CI, 0.03 to 7.3; P = .03). The clipped node was not retrieved as an SLN in 23% (31 of 134) of patients, including six with negative SLNs but metastasis in the clipped node. TAD followed by ALND was performed in 85 patients, with an FNR of 2.0% (1 of 50; 95% CI, 0.05 to 10.7).

Conclusion: Marking nodes with biopsy-confirmed metastatic disease allows for selective removal and improves pathologic evaluation for residual nodal disease after chemotherapy.

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